C++ Tutorial Index

C++ Tutorial C++ History C++ Installation C++ First Program C++ cin and cout C++ Data type C++ Variable C++ operator C++ Keywords

C++ Control Statements

C++ If C++ Nested if C++ If-else C++ If-else-if C++ Switch C++ Break C++ Continue C++ Goto C++ For loop C++ While loop C++ Do while loop

C++ Functions

C++ Call by Value C++ Call by Reference C++ Recursion Function C++ Inline function C++ Friend function

C++ Arrays

Single dimension array Two dimension array

C++ Strings

C++ Strings

C++ Inheritance

C++ Inheritance Single level Inheritance Multilevel Inheritance Multiple Inheritance Hierarchical Inheritance Hybrid Inheritance

C++ Polymorphism

C++ Polymorphism C++ Overloading C++ Overriding C++ Virtual Function

C++ Pointers

C++ Pointers C++ this pointer

C++ Exception Handling

C++ Exception Handling

C++ Constructors

C++ Constructors Default Constructor Parameterize Constructor Copy constructor Constructor Overloading Destructor

C++ File Handling

C++ File Handling C++ Writing to file C++ Reading file C++ Close file

Miscellaneous

C Vs C++ C++ Comments C++ Data Abstraction C++ Identifier C++ Memory Management C++ Storage Classes C++ Void Pointer C++ Array To Function C++ Expressions C++ Features C++ Interfaces C++ Encapsulation std::min in C++ External merge sort in C++ Remove duplicates from sorted array in C++ Precision of floating point numbers Using these functions floor(), ceil(), trunc(), round() and setprecision() in C++ C++ References C++ Friend Functions C++ Mutable keyword Unary Operators in C++ Initialize Array of objects with parameterized constructors in C++ Differences between #define & const in C/C++ C++ Program to Implement Shell Sort C++ Program to Implement Merge Sort Storage Classes in C Vector resize() in C++ Passing by Reference Vs. Passing by the pointer in C++ Free vs delete() in C++ goto statement in C and C++ C++ program to read string using cin.getline() C++ String Concatenation Heap Sort in C++ Swap numbers in C++ Input Iterators in C++ Fibonacci Series in C++ C ++ Program: Alphabet Triangle and Number Triangle C++ Program: Matrix Multiplication C++ Program to Print Fibonacci Triangle Stack in C++ Maps in C++ Queue in C++ C++ Bitset C++ Algorithms Priority Queue in C++ C++ Multimap C++ Deque Function Pointer in C++ Sizeof() Operators in C++ C++ array of Pointers free() Vs delete in C Timsort Implementation Using C++ CPP Templates C++ Aggregation C++ Enumeration C++ Math Functions C++ Object Class C++ Queue Initialize Vector in C++ Vector in C++ C++ STL Components Function overloading in C++ C++ Maximum Index Problem C++ find missing in the second array C++ Program to find the product array puzzle C++ Program To Find Largest Subarray With 0 Sum C++ Program To Move All Zeros To The End Of The Array C++ Program to find the element that occurs once C++ Program to find the largest number formed from an array Constructor Vs Destructor C++ Namespaces C++ OOPs Concept C++ Static C++ Structs C++ Try-Catch C++ User Defined Exceptions C++ Virtual Destructor C++ vs C# Malloc() and new in C++ Palindrome Number Program in C++ Snake Code in C++ Splitting a string in C++ Structure Vs Class in C++ Virtual Function Vs Pure Virtual Function C++ Bidirectional Iterators C++ Forward Iterators C++ Iterators C++ Output Iterators C++ Range-based For Loop Converting string into integer in C++ LCM Program in C++ Type conversion in C++ Add two numbers using the function in C++ Advantage and disadvantage friend function C++ Armstrong Number Program in C++ ATM machine program in C++ using functions Binary to Decimal in C++ Bit Manipulation in C++ C++ Constructor C++ Dijkstra Algorithm Using the Priority Queue C++ int into String C++ Signal Handling Decimal to Binary in C++ Decimal to Hexadecimal in C++ Decimal to Octal in C++ Factorial Program in C++ Function in C++ Hexadecimal to Decimal in C++ Octal to Decimal in C++ Reverse a Number in C++ Structure Vs Class in C++ C++ Forward Iterators C++ Output Iterators C++ Prime number program Char Array to String in C++ Constructor Overloading in C++ Default arguments in C++ Different Ways to Compare Strings in C++ Dynamic Binding in C++ Program to convert infix to postfix expression in C++ SET Data Structure in C++ Upcasting and Downcasting in C++ Reverse an Array in C++ Fast Input and Output in C++ Delete Operator in C++ Copy elision in C++ C++ Date and Time C++ Bitwise XOR Operator Array of sets in C++ Binary Operator Overloading in C++ Binary Search in C++ Implementing the sets without C++ STL containers Scope Resolution Operator in C++ Smart pointers in C++ Types of polymorphism in C++ Exception Handling in C++ vs Java Const Keyword in C++ Type Casting in C++ Static keyword in C++ vs Java Inheritance in C++ vs Java How to concatenate two strings in C++ Programs to Print Pyramid Patterns in C++ swap() function in C++ Structure of C++ Program Stringstream in C++ and its applications rand() and srand() in C / C++ C++ Ternary Operator C++ Scope of Variables While Loop Examples in C++ Star pattern in C++ using For Loops For Loop Examples in C++ Do-While Loop Examples in C++ Top 5 IDEs for C++ That You Should Try Once Assertions in C/C++ C++ Convert Int to String Continue in C++ While loop Diamond Pattern in C++ using For Loop How to Reverse a String in C++ using Do-While Loop How to Reverse a String in C++ using For Loop How to Reverse a String in C++ using While Loop Infinite loop in C++ Loops in C++ Returning Multiple Values from a Function using Tuple and Pair in C++ wcscpy(), wcslen(), wcscmp() Functions in C++ Auto keyword in C++ C++ 11 vs C++ 14 vs C++ 17 C++ STL (Standard Template Library) Differences Between C Structures and C++ Structures Divide by Zero Exception in C++ Dynamic Constructor in C++ Dynamic Memory Allocation in C++ Find the Size of Array in C/C++ without using sizeof() function Floating Point Operations and Associativity in C, C++ and Java Hello World Program in C++ How to create a table in C++ How to Setup Environment for C++ Programming on Mac Implementation of a Falling Matrix in C++ Message Passing in C++ Pointer to Object in C++ Templates in C++ vs Generics in Java Ways to Copy a Vector in C++ What does Buffer Flush mean in C++ sort() function in C++ Structure Sorting (By Multiple Rules) in C++ Similarities between C++ and Java std::distance in C++ Array program in C++ C++ Tricks for Competitive Programming Desired Capabilities in Selenium Web Driver in C++ Socket Programming in C++ Template Specialization in C++ Classes and Objects in C++ Convex hull Algorithm in C++ DES in C++ C++ vardiac() function Difference between Two Sets in C++ Difference between Exit and Return Structured Binding in C++ Differences between Local and Global Variable Bitwise Operator vs Logical Operator Difference between OOP and POP in C++ Fork in C++ Functors in C++ How to call a void function in C++ How to create a directory or folder in C/C++ How to create a library in C++ How to create a stack in C++ How to create the Processes with Fork in C++ How to Handle Divide by Zero Exception in C++ Lambda Expression in C++ Pattern programs in C++ Roadmap to C++ Programming Substring in C++ Virtual base class in C++ Bits stdc++.h in C++ Top 14 Best Free C++ IDE (Editor & Compiler) for Windows in 2022 Bitmasking in C++ Auto Keyword in C++ Features of OOPS in C++ Hospital Management Project in C++ How to Declare Unordered Sets in C++ How to Sort an Array in C++ Include Guards in C++ Iostream in C++ Method overriding in C++ How to run program in turbo c++ How to Use Getline in C++ Leap Year Program in C++ Naming Convention in C++ New Operator in C++ Nullptr in C++ Object Slicing in C++ Principles of Object-Oriented Programming in C++ Processing strings using std string stream in C++ Pure Virtual Function in C++ With Example Program Random Number Generator in C++ Singleton Design Pattern in C++ Size_t Data Type in C++ Skyline Problem in C++ System() function in C++ Web Development in C++ Data Hiding in C++ Difference between exit() and _Exit() in C++ Hashing in C++ Object in C++ Sum of all Elements between k1’th and k2’th Smallest Elements Virtual class in C++ Vector Size in C++ Top best IDEs for C/C++ Developers in 2022 Tensorflow in C++ Sliding Window Technique in C++ Reverse String Word-Wise in C++ Returning a Function Pointer from a Function in C/C++ RTTI in C++ Pthreads or POSIX Threads in C++ Reserved Keywords in C++ Passing a Vector to a function in C++ 10 Best C and C++ Books for Beginners & Advanced Programmers Add two numbers represented by two arrays in C++ Array of Object in C++ C++ Program For FCFS Containership in C++ Counting Frequencies of Array Elements in C++ Decltype type Specifier in C++ Dynamic _Cast in C++ Difference between int main() and int main(void) in C/C++ Depth First Search Program to Traverse a Graph in C++ Features and Use Of Pointers in C/C++ Fread Function in C++ Programming Fscanf Function in The C++ Functions in C++ With Types and Examples Gmtime Function in C/C++ How is Multiset Implemented in C++ How to Build a Program in C++ How to Declare a 2d Array Dynamically in C++ inheritance Program in C++ int Max and int Min in C/C++ is It Fine to Write Void Main Or Main in C/C++ How to create a button in C++ abs() function in C++ Compile Time Polymorphism in C++ Division in C++ Factorial of a Number in C++ using while Loop Multiset in C++ 4 Pillars of OOPs Approach in C++ Backtracking Time Complexity in C++ C++ Global Variable C++ Pipe Tutorial Observer Design Pattern in C++ Private Inheritance in C++ Pthread in C++ Parameters SDL library in C++ with Examples Pointers in C++ Ascending order in C++ How the value is passed in C++ Call by Pointer in C++ Constexpr in C++ Deadlock in C++ Design Patterns in C++ Factory Method for Designing Pattern in C++ How to calculate size of string in C++ Name Mangling and extern in C++ Preventing Object Copy in C++ Program that produces different results in C and C++ Quick Sort in C++ Single Handling in C++ Type difference of Character literals in C VS C++ Use of Inheritance in C++ User-defined literals in C++ Vector methods in C++ Void * in C and C++ Zombie and Orphan Process in C++ Isprint() in C++ List and Vector in C++ List iterators in C++ Merging Two Vectors in C++ Sleep function in C++ Stoi function in C++ String erase() in C++ String Trim in C++ When should we write own Assignment operator in C++ C++ tcp client server example C++ tcp server example Early Binding and Late Binding in C++ Factory Design Pattern in C++ Fisher-Yates shuffle algorithm in C++ For Auto in C++ Group anagrams in C++ How to convert binary string to int in C++ How to convert string to float in C++ How to remove space from string in C++ How to use pair in C++ How to use the string find() in C++ Dynamic Casting in C++ 2D Vector Initialization in C++ C++ GUI Visual Studio C++ IPC C++ Macro Function Example C++ Permutation Overloading Stream Insertion in C++ Overloading array Index operator in C++ Operators that cannot be overloaded in C++ Operator overloading in C++ isprint() function in c++ Is_trivial function in C++ Is assignment operator Inherited in C++ div() function in C++ Default Assignment Operator and References in C++ Copy Constructor vs Assignment Operator in C++ Conversion Operator in C++ Array sum in C++ STL C++ Define Macro C++ Design C++ Factory Pattern TCP Client Server Example in C++ Convert String to Uppercase in C++ exit() and _Exit() in C and C++ Initializer list in C++ Iterator invalidation in C++ Lower bound in C++ Modulus of Two float numbers or double number Pass by value in C++ Set insert function in C++ Std partition_point in C++ Unary Operator Overloading in C++ Using Default Arguments with Virtual Functions Virtual Functions and Runtime Polymorphism What is endl in C++ What is Unary Operator Overloading in C++ Which operators cannot be overloaded in C++? rint(), rintf(), rintl() in C++ Stack size in C++ String append() function in C++ String push_back() in C++ String replace() in C++ Transform function in C++ Unique in C++ Unordered_map in C++ Binary String to Int C++ Boost C++ ctime() function in C++ Difference Between Overloading and Overriding in C++ Exception handling in constructor and destructor in C++ Explain class template in C++ Fesetround() and Fegetround() in C++ and their application Gets() and Puts() in C++ Hypot(), hypotf() and hypotl() in C++ Kadane Algorithm in C++ Log function in C++ Map of Pairs in STL Map vs unordered_map in C++ Nearbyint() Function in C++ Pair in C++ Access Specifiers in C++ Add Two Numbers in C++ Using Class Benefits of Operator Overloading in C++ C++ Socket Programming Windows C++ Program for Addition of Two Numbers Using Functions C++ Programming Examples C++ Protected Inheritance C++ Return Object Static Data Members in C++ Program for COPY Constructor in C++ Association in C++ C_str in C++ Boost libraries in C++ C++ macro function Assignment Operator Overloading in C++ Automatic Storage Class in C++ Function Object in C++ C++ Move Constructor Cast in C++ C++ 11 Lambda C++ Multithreading Bottom-up Approach in C++ C++ Program to Divide the String Into N equal Parts Gray Code to Binary Code in C++ How to get the value of pi in C++ Multimap value_comp() function in C++ Vector of Vectors in C++ Naïve Bayes Algorithm in C++ f 10 C++ Programming Tricks You Should Know btowc() function in C++ forward_list::cend() in C++ Unordered_multimap max_load_factor() function in C++ Cpp_int in c++ Dynamic Objects in C++ FLOCK() FUNCTION IN C++ Generate Random Double Numbers in C++ How to Assign Infinity to a Number in C++ Jump statements in C++ Multipath inheritance in C++ Out of Range Exception in C++ Size of Class in C++ Size of string in C++ std::binary_negate in c++ Thread_local in C++ Tokenizing a String in C++ Ancestors of a Node in Binary Search Tree C++ program for Double to String Conversion C++ Program to Demonstrate Use of Formatting Flags on Float Output Clamp in C++ K-Dimensional Tree in C++ Mutable Lambda in C++ Power Set in C++ Program to Find Sum of Geometric Progression Std::Back_inserter in C++ Strpbrk() function in C++ Size of int in C++ TYPES OF MANIPULATORS IN C++ Double colon in C++ How to sort vector in C++ How to use Setprecision in C++ How to write a Vector in C++ Insertion in Splay Tree in C++ Merge Sort Algorithm in C++ Printing a Character using ASCII value in C++ Regex in C++ Size of Data Types in C++ Abstract Factory Design Pattern in C++ Sqrtf() function in C++ Static Casting in C++ Using Range in Switch Case in C++ wcstoimax() and wcstoumax() function in C++ What is float in C++ What is the Diamond Problem in C++ Best way to learn C++ ios setstate() function in C++ Nested Namespace in C++ Single Inheritance in C++ std::fixed, std::scientific, std::hexfloat, std::defaultfloat in C++ StringStream in C++ for Decimal to Hexadecimal and back The OFFSETOF() macro in C++ Semaphores in C++ Seekg in C++ stacktrace Header file in C++ 23 std::future in C++ std::unary_negate() in C++ Difference between std::endl and \n in C++ Iswspace Function in C++ Difference between std-next and std::advance in C++ Hiding of all overloaded methods with same name in base class in C++ C++ program to concatenate two strings using operator overloading Difference between array::fill() and array::swap() in C++ Difference between Friend Function and Virtual Function in C++ Semaphores in C++ UDP server- client implementattion in C++ What is long long in C++ CSV file management using C++ fma() function in C++ Toggle bits of a number except first and last bits in C++ Trailing Return Type C++ 11 Binary search implementation in C++ Different Versions of C++ What is Cascading in C++ Background Colour in C++ BOOL DATATYPE IN C++ BIT VECTORS IN C++ Literals in C++ Application of pointer in C++ Index with minimum sum of prefix and suffix sums in an array in C++ Maximum sum Bi-tonic sub-sequence in C++ std::optional in C++ C/C++ program for triangular matchstick number COUT COMMAND IN C++ LANGUAGE Adjacency matrix program in C++ language Exception Objects in C++ Difference between Null String and Empty String in C++ Character data type in c++ Constructors in Inheritance C++ Comma Operator Overloading in C++ Typename in C++ C++ Friend Class C++ Exceptions Difference Between C and C++ Double-linked list program in C++ Color Code in C++ CRC Program in C++ Anti-Clockwise spiral traversal of a binary tree in C++ Advantages of OOP in C++ Cryptarithmetic Puzzle in C++ Angular sweep algorithm in C++ Factorial of Large Numbers in C++ endl Function in C++ vfprintf() method in C++ Check if a given number is Pronic in C++ Difference between Fundamental Data Type and Derived Data Types in C++ Different Ways to initialize an unordered_set in C++ Dinic’s Algorithm in C++ How to read whole ASCII File into C++ using std::string? std::unary_negate() in C++ String::npos function in C++ type_traits::is_null_pointer in C++ C++ code to count the local extrema of given array Demlo number (square of 11....1) in C++ Function Template and Class Template in C++ Getline in C++ GUI Design in C++ Hashing Implementation in C++ HIERARCHICAL INHERITANCE IN C++ Hospital Management System in C++ How to Add Header Files in Dev C++? How to cin string in C++ How to compile a C++ program in Visual Studio code Iscntrl in C++ Memento Pattern in C++ Smarandache-Wellin Sequence in C++ The feclearexcept in C++ HashMap in C++ Alexander Bogomolny's UnOrdered Permutation Algorithm in C++ Convex Polygon in C++ Count Univalue Subtrees in C++ Entringer Number in C++ Friends pairing Problem in C++ Klee's Algorithm (Length of the union of segments of a line) in C++ Spaceship Operator(&|t;==>) in C++ Uniform Initialization in C++ Woodall Number in C++ C++ Program to Solve Knapsack Problem Using Dynamic Programming How do you exit from the infinite loop in Turbo C++? How to create a game using C++ language How to do XOR in C++? How to Find Max Value in Array C++ How to get date in C++ Pointer to a Derived Class in C++ C++ program to show runtime exceptions Convert a Singly LinkedList to XOR LinkedList in C++ Creation of Variable in C++ CRTP (curiously recurring template pattern) in C++ Euler Circuits in Directed Graphs Using C++ Final NBA Match pairing in C++ Find pivot in rotated sorted array in C++ How to make a square in C++ How to reduce fractions in C++ std::lerp in C++ Stella Octangula Numbers in C++ Return Statement in C++ Finding the n-th Fortune Number in C++ How to use StringStream in C++ Minimize Count of Unequal Elements at corresponding Indices between give n arrays in C++ std::midpoint in C++ std::transform inclusive scan in C++ std::span in C++ Types of Errors in C++ C++ program to implement the bin packing algorithm Dereference Operator in C++ How to merge multiple std::sets into a single std::set in C++? Stack Clear C++ Structure and Class in C++ Template Definition in C++ Tree Data Structure in C++ Typename in C++ Program in C++ for Beginners Restoring a Shuffled Queue in C++ Print patterns in C++ Hybrid Inheritance in C++ How to use OpenGL in C++? How to Separate a String in C++ Havel-Hakimi algorithm in C++ Find the size of all connected Non-Empty Cells of a Matrix in C++ Burst Sort Algorithm in C++ Basic istream peak() method in C++ Addition of two matrices in C++ What is std reference wrapper in C++? What is std mbrtoc 32 in C++? What is std istreambuf iterator in C++? What is std declval in C++? std rethrow if nested in C++ std regex search in C++ std ctype byname in C++ std call once in C++ std basic ios copyfmt in C++ std atomic ref in C++ Properties of Friend Function in C++ Sophie Germain Prime number in C++ Centroid Decomposition in C++ How to Get the List of All Running Tasks in C++ Programming Questions on Function Overloading in C++ std codecvt in and std codecvt do in in C++ std is constant evaluated in C++ Std put money in C++ Number of ordered pairs such that Ai Aj = 0 in C++ dlsym() function in C++ Isxdigit() function in C++ Difference between Objective C and C++ Menu Driven Program in C++ Undulating Numbers in C++ How to Access Private Variables in C++? Particle Swarm Optimization in C++ Understanding std::ios_base::iword in C++ std::piecewise_construct _t in C++ Toeplitz Matrix in C++ Two-Way Linear Search Algorithm in C++ C++ Concurrency in action C++ integer size C++ Enum class Compare two lists in C++ Command to run C++ Program in terminal Cascading In C++ Static Member Function in C++ with Example C++ Multiple, Multilevel and Hierarchical inheritance Painting Fence Algorithm in C++ Rearrange Distant Barcodes in C++ What are the rules for using an Underscore in a C++ dentifier? std::quoted in C++ Std::memory_order in C++ Std::fisher_f_distribution in C++ Advantages Oops in C++ floor() and ceil() function in C++ Topological Sort in C++ How to get file size in C++ Class Meaning in C++ DIFFERENCE BETWEEN NEW AND DELETE OPERATOR IN C++ New and Delete In C++ Operators in C++ String data types in C++ begin() in C++ Static Library Linking in C++ Stack Unwinding in C++ Singleton Pattern in C++ Shared_ptr in C++ Random Number between 1 and 10 in C++ Initializer in C++ Error Handling in C++ Define Reference in C++ Create a Class in C++ C++ Move Semantics What is Thread Id to Int in C++? What is a Static Member Function in C++? Using Keyword in C++ C++ IDE Linux C++ Mini Project With Source Code and Output All swing components C++ Syntax Link Call By Value And Call By Reference In C++ Const ptr c++ Const_cast C++ Constant Arguments in C++ Example of parameterized constructor in C++ example of user-defined data type Anonymous object in C++ Bank program in C++ Base class and Derived class in C++ Cerr in C++ Cin string in C++ cin.get() in C++ Containers in C++ Control flow statement in C++ coroutine in C++ cstdlib in C++ Difference between encapsulation and Abstraction Difference between template and macro in C++ Emplace_back in C++ Cstdio in C++ Exception specification in C++ Files and streams in C++ Hamming code implementation in C++ Map cbegin() and cend() function in C++ STL Map Emplace_hint() function in C++ STL Naked function calls in C++ Private destructor in C++ Static object in C++ unordered_set in C++ Uses of namespace std in C++ Virtual function and virtual base class in C++ VS Code Setup for C++ Vtable and vptr in C++ fixed() function in C++ How to remove an element from an array in C++ How to take space-separated input in C++ iomanip in C++ Isdigit() function in C++ noexcept in C++ rdbuf() in c++ seekg() function in C++ Seekp() function in C++ Setw() in C++ The diamond pattern in C++ Advantages and Disadvantages of Inheritance in C++ C++ Variables Types Explain Access Specifiers in C++ Anagram Program in C++ AREA OF TRIANGLE IN C++ ARRAY INPUT IN C++ Big Integers in C++ Bitwise Operator in C++ Data Structures Algorithms and Application in C++ EOF Function in C++ Explicit in C++ File Opening Mode in C++ Friend Function in C++ Function Overriding in C++ How to Copy in Turbo C++? How To Use POW in C++ Increment Operator in C++ Inline Functions in C++ Int range in C++ Integer in C++ Linked List in C++ malloc() and calloc() in C++ Maximum Value in Vector in C++ NPTEL Programming in C++ Assignment Solutions SHARED POINTER IN C++ Vector in C++ Stl What is an Object in C++ What is Copy Constructor in C++ Dereferencing a Pointer in C++ fill() Function in C++ map find() function in C++ Associative Containers In C++ C++ generic programming introduction Character Set in C++ Class and Structure in C++ Decltype in c++ Difference Between Abstraction and Interface in C++ File Stream in C++ Final in C++ Final Keyword in C++ Find substring in C++ Flush in C++ Has-A Relationship in C++ How to allocate memory dynamically in C++ How to close turbo C++ in windows 10 How to Use Modulus in C++ How to use Set in C++ Input and Output Operators in C++ Insert Function in C++ MENU DRIVEN PROGRAM IN C++ MOVE SEMANTICS IN C++ OOPs Interview Questions in C++ PARAMETER PASSING IN C++ PUNCTUATORS IN C++ SPLIT FUNCTION IN C++ Stream Classes in C++ Vector declaration in c++ Vector in C++ Virtual Function in C++ Binary Search Tree Program in C++ Built-in Types in C++ API in C++ Returning Object from a Function in C++ C++ Singleton C++ Template Class Declaration and Definition Tree in C++ C++ Type Traits Catch All Exceptions in C++ Lvalue and Rvalue in C++ Move Constructor in C++ Move Semantics in C++ Mutex Lock in C++ Qt in C++ Tutorial STL Algorithms in C++ Access Class members in C++ Designated initializers in C++ Dynamic Initialization of Objects in C++ Inbuilt Functions in C++ Metaclass in C++ Nesting of a member function in C++ Unique_ptr() in C++ Vector erase() function in C++ Vector insert() Function in C++ 10 important concepts of Oops in C++ At in C++ Difference Between Abstraction and Encapsulation in C++ Difference between Function Overloading and Operator Overloading in C++ Exception Specifications in C++ Examples of Destructor in C++ Examples of Hybrid Inheritance in C++ How to declare an Array in C++ How to declare string in C++ Instance variable in C++ Manipulators in C++ Pointer Declaration in C++ preprocessor in C++ Push_Back() Function in C++ Space in C++ String stl in c++ Edmonds Karp algorithm in C++ How to Create Singleton Class in C++ Static Polymorphism in C++ Associative Containers In C++ C++ generic programming introduction Character Set in C++ Class and Structure in C++ Decltype in c++ Difference Between Abstraction and Interface in C++ File Stream in C++ Final in C++ Final Keyword in C++ Find substring in C++ Flush in C++ Has-A Relationship in C++ How to allocate memory dynamically in C++ How to close turbo C++ in windows 10 How to Use Modulus in C++ How to use Set in C++ Input and Output Operators in C++ Insert Function in C++ MENU DRIVEN PROGRAM IN C++ MOVE SEMANTICS IN C++ OOPs Interview Questions in C++ PARAMETER PASSING IN C++ PUNCTUATORS IN C++ SPLIT FUNCTION IN C++ Stream Classes in C++ Vector declaration in c++ Vector in C++ Virtual Function in C++ Associative Containers In C++ C++ generic programming introduction Character Set in C++ Class and Structure in C++ Decltype in c++ Difference Between Abstraction and Interface in C++ File Stream in C++ Final in C++ Final Keyword in C++ Find substring in C++ Flush in C++ Has-A Relationship in C++ How to allocate memory dynamically in C++ How to close turbo C++ in windows 10 How to Use Modulus in C++ How to use Set in C++ Input and Output Operators in C++ Insert Function in C++ MENU DRIVEN PROGRAM IN C++ MOVE SEMANTICS IN C++ OOPs Interview Questions in C++ PARAMETER PASSING IN C++ PUNCTUATORS IN C++ SPLIT FUNCTION IN C++ Stream Classes in C++ Vector declaration in c++ Virtual Function in C++ Babylonian Square Root Algorithm in C++ C++ Delegates Complex Number Program in C++ Custom Sort in C++ Differences Between C++ and JavaScript Meta Classes in C++ Prim’s Algorithm in C++ RAII in C++ How to access set elements in C++ How to Allocate and Deallocate Memory in C++ How to Convert String to Lowercase in c++ How to initialize a string in C++ How to Input a String in C++ Ignore Function in C++ Image Recognition Algorithm in C++ Insertion Sort Algorithm in C++ Knapsack Problem in C++ LOG BASE 2 IN C++ LOOPING STATEMENT IN C++ Managing Output with Manipulators in C++ Max Heap in C++ mbrlen- function in C-C++ Merge Overlapping Intervals in C++ Merge Sort Recursive in C++ Methods to Sort Strings in C++ Multiline Comment in C++ Multiple catch statements in C++ Naïve Bayes Algorithm in C++ Needleman Wunsch Algorithm in C++ Object delegation in C++ Pass 2 Assembler Program in C++ ratio_less_equal() function in C++ Rethrowing an exception in C++ Return type in C++ Reusability in C++ Round Robin Scheduling Program in C++ Sequence Container in C++ Sieve of Eratosthenes in C++ SOLID PRINCIPLES IN C++ STACK USING PUSH POP PROGRAMME IN C++ Stdlib Header File in C++ Strcmp function in C++ strcmpi in C++ Find minimum s-t cut in a flow network in C++ Hamilton Cycle Detection in C++ list cbеgin() and cеnd() function in C++ Maximum Bipartite Matching in C++ Neural Network in C++ Otsu Thresholding Opencv C++ Pancake Sorting in C++ Pimpl Idiom in C++ Print All Interleavings of Given Two Strings in C++ Print the Corner Elements and their Sum in a 2-D Matrix in C++ reinterpret_cast in C++ Rotate Bits of a Number in C++ Shallow Copy in C++ Stable Marriage Program in C++ Stack Smashing Detected in C++ Static Data Member in C++ String::npos in C++ Thread safe queue in C++ Total Keywords in C++ Tug of War in C++ What Kind of Exceptions are Available in C++ Which Operator is Used to Allocate Memory for an Object Boundary Traversal of Binary Number in C++ Difference between POP and OOP in C++ Fundamentals of Data Structures in C++ C++ Constructor Return Type C++ Libraries C++ STL Tutorial C++ Throw Character String in C++ Clone a Linked List with Next and Random Pointer in C++ Counting Sort in C++ Diffеrеncе Bеtwееn dеquе::cbеgin and dеquе::assign in C++ Difference between Null and Nullptr in C++ Facade Pattern in C++ Semaphore in C++ Accumulate function in C++ Algorithm Header File in C++ Applications of C++ basic_istream::putback() in C++ Benefits of OOPs Boost library in C++ Bubble Sort in C++ C++ Override C++ Struct Public Throw Exception in C++ Call by Rеfеrеncе in C++ Character in C++ Characteristics of friend function in C++ Cin Getline in C++ Collections in C++ Composition in c++ Continue Statement in C++ Developing a Digital Synthesizer in C++ Different C++ Versions Diffеrеncе Bеtwееn Friеnd Function and Virtual Function in C++ Find a triplet from three linked lists with a sum equal to a given number in C++ Fizz Buzz Problem in C++ Forward list in C++ Friend Function and Friend Class in C++ Advantages of Function Overloading in C++ Game Library for C++ HashSet in C++ Heapify Algorithm in C++ Hopcroft Karp algorithm in C++ String find function in C++ Tellg in C++ The lower_bound in C++ The sum of digits in C++ Thinking in C++ language THIS FUNCTION IN C++ Tower of Hanoi Algorithm in C++ Transpose of a Matrix in C++ language Types of Execution in C++ Use of explicit keyword in C++ User-defined header files in C++ Vector of String in C++ Virtual Table in C++ Visibility Mode in C++ What are Literals in C++ What are manipulators in C++ Abstract Data Type in C++ POP full form in C++ 8-puzzle Problem Using Branch and Bound in C++ BK tree in C++ Decorator pattern in C++ Fusion tree in C++ Jump Pointer algorithm in C++ std::remove_extent in C++ Tabu search in C++ Nested structure in C++

Pass 2 Assembler Program in C++

Assemblers are crucial tools in computer science and programming as they translate assembly language code, which humans can understand, into binary code, which machines can read. This transition is necessary for the CPU to execute software. The assembly process is frequently divided into Pass 1 and Pass 2, each carrying out a distinct task.

What is an Assembler?

An assembler is a software that converts assembly language code into machine or object code, which is a crucial component of computer programming software. An assembly language is a low-level programming language unique to a specific computer architecture. It is easier to grasp than raw binary code because it uses mnemonics and symbols to describe the underlying machine instructions and memory addresses.

A computer's CPU cannot directly run assembly language code; instead, assemblers must translate it into binary code. During this procedure, the symbolic addresses are resolved, the assembly language instructions are processed, and machine code that the computer can load and run is produced.

Why is Pass 2 Assembler Important?

The second pass of an assembler is an important stage in the assembly process. This pass, which follows Pass 1, is focused on creating the final machine code and clearing up any unclear addresses or references. Pass 2 is essential to the success of the assembly process and the production of error-free, executing machine code.

During Pass 1, the assembler performs tasks such as creating a symbol table, recognizing literals, and spotting syntax errors in the source code. However, it does not result in the final machine code. Pass 2 builds on Pass 1 and ensures that all symbolic addresses are translated into the correct memory locations and that the instructions are correctly translated into binary code.

Purpose and Goals of Pass 2 Assembler

Assembly code: Pass 2's main function is to finish the translation process started in Pass 1 and generate the finished machine code that the computer's CPU can use.

Pass 2 ensures that any symbolic addresses used in the assembly code are accurately mapped to the proper memory locations.

Generating Machine Code: Pass 2 uses the instructions in the source code to convert the assembly language instructions into binary code, including opcodes and operands.

Error Detection and Reporting: Pass 2 reviews the code for errors and reports any problems that Pass 1 might have overlooked. This entails spotting syntax mistakes, undefined symbols, or other problems that might lead to flawed machine code.

Pass 2 Assembler Program Components

A Pass 2 Assembler is a vital tool in the assembly language programming industry because it converts assembly code that is readable by humans into machine code that a computer can understand and execute. The second pass of the assembler is crucial for allocating addresses, allocating symbols, and creating the final machine code.

Brief description of the Pass 1 and Pass 2 Assembler

Pass 1: During the first pass, the assembler analyses the complete source code and creates a symbol table that lists the labels, variables, and constants, as well as the addresses that go with each of the symbols. Additionally, it handles literals, recognizes them, and generates intermediate code.

Pass 2: In the second pass, symbolic addresses are resolved, machine code is created, and the final executable code is created. It creates the machine code for the program by replacing symbolic references with real locations using the symbol table built in Pass1.

Design and Implementation

Making a Pass 2 Assembler program in C++ is essential to convert high-level computer code into machine-readable instructions. The final machine code that can be run by a computer's central processing unit (CPU) is created during this step, is frequently referred to as the "backend" of the assembly process. This section will provide a clear and thorough explanation of the design and implementation components of a C++ Pass 2 Assembler program.

Data Structures for Symbol Table

In Pass 2 Assembler, the symbol table is an important data structure since it contains details on the symbols used in the source code. The essential elements are:

Structure of Symbol Entries: Each symbol found in the source code is represented by a symbol entry in the symbol table. This entry normally contains the name of the symbol, its location, and other pertinent details.

Address Entry Structure: Data regarding the addresses given to symbols are stored in this structure. It records the memory locations assigned to symbols during Pass 1.

Working with Literal Values

Programming in assembly language requires literal values, such as numbers or characters. They are handled in Pass 2 Assembler and given the proper addresses.

Literal Table: like the symbol table, contains data on literals. Each item contains the literal value, location, and other pertinent information.

Taking Literal Values into Account: The assembler assigns addresses to literals on the second pass, changing their symbolic references to actual addresses in the machine code.

Resolving Symbolic Addresses

Resolving symbolic addresses is one of Pass 2's main responsibilities. To do this, symbolic references must be translated into their corresponding memory addresses.

Symbol Resolution Algorithm: Pass 2 looks up the addresses of symbols encountered in the code using the symbol table built in Pass 1. It guarantees that all symbol references are properly resolved.

Handling Forward and Backward References: In the second pass, the assembler must deal with symbols defined after being referenced (forward references) or referenced after being defined (backward references). Careful programming is required to handle these references suitably.

Generating Machine Code

Pass 2 Assembler's ultimate objective is to produce machine code that the computer's CPU can use to operate.

Opcode Mapping: Converting machine code opcodes from assembly language mnemonics. This mapping is often specified in the opcode table for the assembler.

Operand Parsing and Translation: Assembly operands are processed, converted to binary representations, and combined with opcodes to create machine code instructions. This process is known as operand parsing and translation.

A C++ Pass 2 Assembler program can successfully convert assembly code into executable machine code by concentrating on these essential design and implementation components. To ensure that the assembler successfully generates trustworthy and executable machine code, it is crucial to priorities data structure efficiency, symbol resolution accuracy, and code generation correctness.

Error Handling in Pass 2 Assembler Program

Any program development process must include error handling and Pass 2 Assembler Programs built in C++ are no exception.

Common Assembler Errors

Syntax errors: Language syntax rules are broken, which results in syntax errors. Some of these problems may still appear during Pass 2, even though they are typically found during lexical analysis and parsing in the early phases of the assembler. Examples include absent commas or in the wrong place, incorrectly spelt opcodes, or invalid label names.

Semantic errors: Semantic mistakes affect the logic or meaning of the assembly code. It can be more difficult to identify these problems, and they might not be discovered until Pass 2 when the assembler tries to resolve symbolic addresses or build machine code. Undefined symbols, inconsistent operand types, or addressing mode incompatibilities are examples.

Logical errors: The hardest to spot are logical mistakes because they frequently go undetected and don't produce quick error alerts. Instead, they result in improper program behaviour or unanticipated outcomes. To find these issues, careful testing and debugging may be necessary.

Error Detection and Reporting

For the assembler to be user-friendly and to guarantee the precision of the produced code, effective error detection and reporting techniques are essential.

Error Flags and Codes: Pass To classify and transmit various failures, assemblers frequently employ error flags or error codes. These flags can be set while instructions and operands are processed and then examined later to detect problems.

Error notifications: Error messages must be easy to understand for programmers to locate and correct problems in their code. In-depth error messages from assemblers frequently include the line number and an explanation of the issue. Programmers can use these notifications to identify error locations.

Gentle Dismissal: To avoid producing the wrong machine code, the assembler should gracefully exit in serious failures that impede continued processing. To ensure a clean exit, appropriate cleanup procedures and resource release should be put into place.

Recovery from Error: To catch many faults in one pass, assemblers might be built to continue processing after identifying errors. Error recovery should be carried out cautiously, though, as subsequent errors could be a result of the original error.

Tips for Debugging and Troubleshooting

Finding and fixing faults in a Pass 2 assembler program requires effective debugging.

Debugging Instruments: Use the debugging capabilities and tools that your C++ programming environment offers. You can go through the code with the aid of these tools, examine variables, and track the execution path.

Logging: Use logging systems to capture important program status and variable values. When troubleshooting problems that may not be immediately obvious, logs can be incredibly helpful.

Code Reviews: Review your code with your mentors or coworkers. Often, mistakes or potential problems that you may have missed can be seen by new eyes.

Unit Testing: Create thorough unit tests for each assembler function and component. This serves as a safety net for later stages of the development process and helps discover mistakes early.

Optimization Techniques in Pass 2 Assembler Programs

Enhancing the effectiveness and performance of Pass 2 assembler programs written in C++ requires the use of optimization techniques. These methods are intended to accelerate the conversion of assembly language code into machine code while utilizing the fewest resources possible.

Intermediate Code Optimization

Prior to producing the final machine code, intermediate code optimization focuses on enhancing the quality of the intermediate representation of the assembly code. The remaining stages of the assembler program can be made simpler by optimizing the intermediate code, which results in a quicker and more effective translation.

Constant Folding: At compile time, evaluate constant expressions and replace them with computed values. with instance, constant folding would substitute "MOV R1, 8" with expressions like "MOV R1, 5 + 3" in the assembly code.

Dead Code Elimination: Find and eliminate code that has no bearing on the output or execution of the program. The overall size of the intermediate code is decreased as a result.

Strength Reduction: Switch out expensive activities for equivalent ones that need fewer resources. For instance, when appropriate, replace multiplication with a shift operation.

Common Subexpression Elimination: Find and remove instances of the same expression being computed more than once in the code.

Code Generation Strategies

Code generation, which translates assembly language instructions into machine code, is a crucial stage in Pass 2 assembler programming. The performance of the assembler program can be greatly improved by optimizing this stage.

Code Scheduling: Code scheduling is a technique for optimization that reorders assembly instructions to reduce pipeline pauses and increase parallelism at the instruction level. It makes sure that the execution units on the CPU are used effectively, which speeds up execution.

Register Allocation: To optimize code generation, registers must be used effectively. Techniques for allocating variables to registers are designed to reduce memory access and increase performance. Graph coloring techniques and heuristics are frequently used in this process.

Peephole Optimization: Peephole optimization is the process of applying optimizations to small, contiguous regions of generated machine code. Removal of unnecessary instructions, joining of adjacent instructions, and simplification of conditional branching are examples of common peephole optimizations.

Performance Enhancements

Pass 2 assembler programs can benefit from additional speed improvements in addition to the optimization of the code generation procedure.

Asynchronous I/O: The assembler program can reduce idle time and boost throughput by using asynchronous I/O operations to combine I/O with computation.

Parallel Processing: By utilizing multi-core processors, parallel processing techniques can be used to split the assembler program's workload across several cores, accelerating the translation process even more.

Just-In-Time Compilation (JIT): JIT techniques can sometimes be used to dynamically produce machine code as needed, enabling more aggressive optimizations specific to the target hardware and runtime circumstances.

Sample Pass 2 Assembler Program in C++

This Pass 2 Assembler sample program's goal is to demonstrate the basic procedures involved in converting assembly language code into machine code. It will accept an input file of assembly language source code, run that file through the Pass 2 Assembler, and output the appropriate machine code.

Key Components

  • Input File: The program starts by reading an input file containing the assembly language source code. The labels and symbolic instructions that will be converted into machine code are contained in this file.
  • Symbol Table: The symbol table is an essential data structure in this program. In the source code, symbols like labels and variables are stored as information. The name of the symbol and its accompanying location or value are included in each entry of the symbol table. To resolve symbolic references, utilize this table.
  • Literal Table: The literal table, which holds literal values such as constants present in the source code, is another significant data structure. The value of the literal and its matching address are both included in each item of this table.
  • Opcode Table: The program employs an opcode table to convert assembly instructions into machine code. The opcodes for mnemonic assembly instructions are mapped in this table.
  • Intermediate Code: During Pass 1, the program produces a preliminary version of the source code. The mnemonic instructions, operands, and any unresolved symbolic references are all included in this intermediate code.
  • Output File: A file is used to store the machine code that was generated. This file includes the assembly code's binary representation, which the central processor unit of a computer can run.

Execution Steps

  1. Pass 1 Processing: As was covered before in this article, the sample program begins by conducting Pass 1 processing. The symbol table and literal table are built during this step, and intermediate code is also produced.
  2. Processing of Pass 2: When Pass 1 is finished, the program moves on to Pass 2. In this stage, symbolic references are resolved, assembly instructions are converted to machine code using the opcode table, and the finished machine code is produced.
  3. Error Handling: To address syntax errors, undefined symbols, or other problems in the source code, the program contains error detection and reporting tools.
  4. Output Generation: To provide a binary representation of the original assembly language program, the program then writes the machine code to the output file.

Example Walkthrough

Assembly language code:

START 1000

LOOP LDA X

     ADD Y

     STA RESULT

     BRZ DONE

     SUB X

     BR LOOP

DONE HLT

X    DEC 10

Y    DEC 20

RESULT RES 1

This code will be processed by the example program, which will then produce the equivalent machine code and save it to an output file. During Pass 2, labels (symbols), opcodes, and operands are handled.

Real-world Applications of Pass 2 Assemblers

The implementation of assemblers is essential in the field of software development and computer systems because it transforms low-level assembly code into machine code that a computer can comprehend and execute. Particularly Pass 2 assemblers have found extensive use in a variety of fields.

Programming for embedded systems

Computer systems with specialized functionality known as embedded systems are created to carry out specific activities or functions within bigger systems. Because these systems frequently have constrained memory and computing power, effective code generation is a top requirement. Pass 2 assemblers' capacity to properly manage hardware limits and optimize code has made them indispensable in this field.

Example: Automotive Control Units

In the automobile sector, pass 2 assemblers are frequently used to program control units for operations including engine management, ABS, and airbag deployment. To guarantee vehicle performance and safety, these systems necessitate efficient and dependable code. Pass 2 assemblers facilitate real-time replies, produce highly optimized machine code, and use the least amount of memory.

Legacy System Maintenance

Many businesses continue to use legacy software and computer systems that were created decades ago. It can be difficult to maintain and update these systems, particularly when there is little documentation. In situations like these, Pass 2 assemblers demonstrate their value by helping with reverse engineering, code analysis, and reprogramming.

Example: Mainframe Systems

Important mainframe systems that have been in use for a while are frequently run by large enterprises and governmental organizations. These systems, which were created in assembly language, need to be updated on a regular basis to take into account evolving business needs and security considerations. Programmers can decode, alter, and expand the functionality of these systems while still maintaining their effectiveness and dependability with the use of Pass 2 assemblers.

Cross-Platform Development

Cross-platform development is necessary in the era of varied computing platforms and architectures to reach a larger audience. Pass 2 assemblers are a useful tool for cross-platform development projects since they can be modified to produce machine code for several target platforms.

Example: Gaming Consoles

To reach the widest possible audience, game creators frequently target a variety of gaming systems and platforms. Using Pass 2 assemblers, developers may produce high-performance games that work well on a variety of hardware by helping to generate optimized machine code for multiple console architectures.

Academic and Research Purposes

Applications for pass 2 assemblers can be found in both academic and research settings. The use of assemblers gives programming in assembly language and computer architecture students practical experience. Pass 2 assemblers can be used as a tool by researchers working on unique algorithms and optimizations to assess their theories and concepts.

Example: Computer Architecture Courses

Pass 2 assemblers are used as a part of the computer science and engineering curricula in universities and technical institutions. Students develop knowledge of optimization strategies, get insight into the inner workings of assemblers, and recognize the value of effective code production.

Challenges Faced

Complexity: Because it must deal with a variety of addressing modes, data structures, and optimization strategies, creating a Pass 2 assembler can be challenging and time-consuming.

Compatibility: Especially in cross-platform development, ensuring compatibility with many target platforms and architectures can be a difficult issue.

Debugging: Because it requires operating at a low level of abstraction, debugging Pass 2 assembler-generated code can be difficult.

Maintenance: Using Pass 2 assemblers for upgrades and maintenance on legacy systems may necessitate substantial reverse engineering, documentation, and code reworking.

Conclusion

In conclusion, Pass 2 assemblers in C++ play a pivotal role in assembly language and computer studies. They bridge the gap between human-readable assembly code and machine-executable binary code, ensuring accurate symbolic address resolution and translation of assembly instructions. Pass 2 assemblers are essential for generating efficient machine code, employing techniques like constant folding and code scheduling, benefiting applications ranging from embedded systems to legacy system maintenance.