C++ Tutorial Index

C++ Tutorial C++ History C++ Installation C++ First Program C++ cin and cout C++ Data type C++ Variable C++ operator C++ Keywords

C++ Control Statements

C++ If C++ Nested if C++ If-else C++ If-else-if C++ Switch C++ Break C++ Continue C++ Goto C++ For loop C++ While loop C++ Do while loop

C++ Functions

C++ Call by Value C++ Call by Reference C++ Recursion Function C++ Inline function C++ Friend function

C++ Arrays

Single dimension array Two dimension array

C++ Strings

C++ Strings

C++ Inheritance

C++ Inheritance Single level Inheritance Multilevel Inheritance Multiple Inheritance Hierarchical Inheritance Hybrid Inheritance

C++ Polymorphism

C++ Polymorphism C++ Overloading C++ Overriding C++ Virtual Function

C++ Pointers

C++ Pointers C++ this pointer

C++ Exception Handling

C++ Exception Handling

C++ Constructors

C++ Constructors Default Constructor Parameterize Constructor Copy constructor Constructor Overloading Destructor

C++ File Handling

C++ File Handling C++ Writing to file C++ Reading file C++ Close file

Miscellaneous

C Vs C++ C++ Comments C++ Data Abstraction C++ Identifier C++ Memory Management C++ Storage Classes C++ Void Pointer C++ Array To Function C++ Expressions C++ Features C++ Interfaces C++ Encapsulation std::min in C++ External merge sort in C++ Remove duplicates from sorted array in C++ Precision of floating point numbers Using these functions floor(), ceil(), trunc(), round() and setprecision() in C++ C++ References C++ Friend Functions C++ Mutable keyword Unary Operators in C++ Initialize Array of objects with parameterized constructors in C++ Differences between #define & const in C/C++ C++ Program to Implement Shell Sort C++ Program to Implement Merge Sort Storage Classes in C Vector resize() in C++ Passing by Reference Vs. Passing by the pointer in C++ Free vs delete() in C++ goto statement in C and C++ C++ program to read string using cin.getline() C++ String Concatenation Heap Sort in C++ Swap numbers in C++ Input Iterators in C++ Fibonacci Series in C++ C ++ Program: Alphabet Triangle and Number Triangle C++ Program: Matrix Multiplication C++ Program to Print Fibonacci Triangle Stack in C++ Maps in C++ Queue in C++ C++ Bitset C++ Algorithms Priority Queue in C++ C++ Multimap C++ Deque Function Pointer in C++ Sizeof() Operators in C++ C++ array of Pointers free() Vs delete in C Timsort Implementation Using C++ CPP Templates C++ Aggregation C++ Enumeration C++ Math Functions C++ Object Class C++ Queue Initialize Vector in C++ Vector in C++ C++ STL Components Function overloading in C++ C++ Maximum Index Problem C++ find missing in the second array C++ Program to find the product array puzzle C++ Program To Find Largest Subarray With 0 Sum C++ Program To Move All Zeros To The End Of The Array C++ Program to find the element that occurs once C++ Program to find the largest number formed from an array Constructor Vs Destructor C++ Namespaces C++ OOPs Concept C++ Static C++ Structs C++ Try-Catch C++ User Defined Exceptions C++ Virtual Destructor C++ vs C# Malloc() and new in C++ Palindrome Number Program in C++ Snake Code in C++ Splitting a string in C++ Structure Vs Class in C++ Virtual Function Vs Pure Virtual Function C++ Bidirectional Iterators C++ Forward Iterators C++ Iterators C++ Output Iterators C++ Range-based For Loop Converting string into integer in C++ LCM Program in C++ Type conversion in C++ Add two numbers using the function in C++ Advantage and disadvantage friend function C++ Armstrong Number Program in C++ ATM machine program in C++ using functions Binary to Decimal in C++ Bit Manipulation in C++ C++ Constructor C++ Dijkstra Algorithm Using the Priority Queue C++ int into String C++ Signal Handling Decimal to Binary in C++ Decimal to Hexadecimal in C++ Decimal to Octal in C++ Factorial Program in C++ Function in C++ Hexadecimal to Decimal in C++ Octal to Decimal in C++ Reverse a Number in C++ Structure Vs Class in C++ C++ Forward Iterators C++ Output Iterators C++ Prime number program Char Array to String in C++ Constructor Overloading in C++ Default arguments in C++ Different Ways to Compare Strings in C++ Dynamic Binding in C++ Program to convert infix to postfix expression in C++ SET Data Structure in C++ Upcasting and Downcasting in C++ Reverse an Array in C++ Fast Input and Output in C++ Delete Operator in C++ Copy elision in C++ C++ Date and Time C++ Bitwise XOR Operator Array of sets in C++ Binary Operator Overloading in C++ Binary Search in C++ Implementing the sets without C++ STL containers Scope Resolution Operator in C++ Smart pointers in C++ Types of polymorphism in C++ Exception Handling in C++ vs Java Const Keyword in C++ Type Casting in C++ Static keyword in C++ vs Java Inheritance in C++ vs Java How to concatenate two strings in C++ Programs to Print Pyramid Patterns in C++ swap() function in C++ Structure of C++ Program Stringstream in C++ and its applications rand() and srand() in C / C++ C++ Ternary Operator C++ Scope of Variables While Loop Examples in C++ Star pattern in C++ using For Loops For Loop Examples in C++ Do-While Loop Examples in C++ Top 5 IDEs for C++ That You Should Try Once Assertions in C/C++ C++ Convert Int to String Continue in C++ While loop Diamond Pattern in C++ using For Loop How to Reverse a String in C++ using Do-While Loop How to Reverse a String in C++ using For Loop How to Reverse a String in C++ using While Loop Infinite loop in C++ Loops in C++ Returning Multiple Values from a Function using Tuple and Pair in C++ wcscpy(), wcslen(), wcscmp() Functions in C++ Auto keyword in C++ C++ 11 vs C++ 14 vs C++ 17 C++ STL (Standard Template Library) Differences Between C Structures and C++ Structures Divide by Zero Exception in C++ Dynamic Constructor in C++ Dynamic Memory Allocation in C++ Find the Size of Array in C/C++ without using sizeof() function Floating Point Operations and Associativity in C, C++ and Java Hello World Program in C++ How to create a table in C++ How to Setup Environment for C++ Programming on Mac Implementation of a Falling Matrix in C++ Message Passing in C++ Pointer to Object in C++ Templates in C++ vs Generics in Java Ways to Copy a Vector in C++ What does Buffer Flush mean in C++ sort() function in C++ Structure Sorting (By Multiple Rules) in C++ Similarities between C++ and Java std::distance in C++ Array program in C++ C++ Tricks for Competitive Programming Desired Capabilities in Selenium Web Driver in C++ Socket Programming in C++ Template Specialization in C++ Classes and Objects in C++ Convex hull Algorithm in C++ DES in C++ C++ vardiac() function Difference between Two Sets in C++ Difference between Exit and Return Structured Binding in C++ Differences between Local and Global Variable Bitwise Operator vs Logical Operator Difference between OOP and POP in C++ Fork in C++ Functors in C++ How to call a void function in C++ How to create a directory or folder in C/C++ How to create a library in C++ How to create a stack in C++ How to create the Processes with Fork in C++ How to Handle Divide by Zero Exception in C++ Lambda Expression in C++ Pattern programs in C++ Roadmap to C++ Programming Substring in C++ Virtual base class in C++ Bits stdc++.h in C++ Top 14 Best Free C++ IDE (Editor & Compiler) for Windows in 2022 Bitmasking in C++ Auto Keyword in C++ Features of OOPS in C++ Hospital Management Project in C++ How to Declare Unordered Sets in C++ How to Sort an Array in C++ Include Guards in C++ Iostream in C++ Method overriding in C++ How to run program in turbo c++ How to Use Getline in C++ Leap Year Program in C++ Naming Convention in C++ New Operator in C++ Nullptr in C++ Object Slicing in C++ Principles of Object-Oriented Programming in C++ Processing strings using std string stream in C++ Pure Virtual Function in C++ With Example Program Random Number Generator in C++ Singleton Design Pattern in C++ Size_t Data Type in C++ Skyline Problem in C++ System() function in C++ Web Development in C++ Data Hiding in C++ Difference between exit() and _Exit() in C++ Hashing in C++ Object in C++ Sum of all Elements between k1’th and k2’th Smallest Elements Virtual class in C++ Vector Size in C++ Top best IDEs for C/C++ Developers in 2022 Tensorflow in C++ Sliding Window Technique in C++ Reverse String Word-Wise in C++ Returning a Function Pointer from a Function in C/C++ RTTI in C++ Pthreads or POSIX Threads in C++ Reserved Keywords in C++ Passing a Vector to a function in C++ 10 Best C and C++ Books for Beginners & Advanced Programmers Add two numbers represented by two arrays in C++ Array of Object in C++ C++ Program For FCFS Containership in C++ Counting Frequencies of Array Elements in C++ Decltype type Specifier in C++ Dynamic _Cast in C++ Difference between int main() and int main(void) in C/C++ Depth First Search Program to Traverse a Graph in C++ Features and Use Of Pointers in C/C++ Fread Function in C++ Programming Fscanf Function in The C++ Functions in C++ With Types and Examples Gmtime Function in C/C++ How is Multiset Implemented in C++ How to Build a Program in C++ How to Declare a 2d Array Dynamically in C++ inheritance Program in C++ int Max and int Min in C/C++ is It Fine to Write Void Main Or Main in C/C++ How to create a button in C++ abs() function in C++ Compile Time Polymorphism in C++ Division in C++ Factorial of a Number in C++ using while Loop Multiset in C++ 4 Pillars of OOPs Approach in C++ Backtracking Time Complexity in C++ C++ Global Variable C++ Pipe Tutorial Observer Design Pattern in C++ Private Inheritance in C++ Pthread in C++ Parameters SDL library in C++ with Examples Pointers in C++ Ascending order in C++ How the value is passed in C++ Call by Pointer in C++ Constexpr in C++ Deadlock in C++ Design Patterns in C++ Factory Method for Designing Pattern in C++ How to calculate size of string in C++ Name Mangling and extern in C++ Preventing Object Copy in C++ Program that produces different results in C and C++ Quick Sort in C++ Single Handling in C++ Type difference of Character literals in C VS C++ Use of Inheritance in C++ User-defined literals in C++ Vector methods in C++ Void * in C and C++ Zombie and Orphan Process in C++ Isprint() in C++ List and Vector in C++ List iterators in C++ Merging Two Vectors in C++ Sleep function in C++ Stoi function in C++ String erase() in C++ String Trim in C++ When should we write own Assignment operator in C++ C++ tcp client server example C++ tcp server example Early Binding and Late Binding in C++ Factory Design Pattern in C++ Fisher-Yates shuffle algorithm in C++ For Auto in C++ Group anagrams in C++ How to convert binary string to int in C++ How to convert string to float in C++ How to remove space from string in C++ How to use pair in C++ How to use the string find() in C++ Dynamic Casting in C++ 2D Vector Initialization in C++ C++ GUI Visual Studio C++ IPC C++ Macro Function Example C++ Permutation Overloading Stream Insertion in C++ Overloading array Index operator in C++ Operators that cannot be overloaded in C++ Operator overloading in C++ isprint() function in c++ Is_trivial function in C++ Is assignment operator Inherited in C++ div() function in C++ Default Assignment Operator and References in C++ Copy Constructor vs Assignment Operator in C++ Conversion Operator in C++ Array sum in C++ STL C++ Define Macro C++ Design C++ Factory Pattern TCP Client Server Example in C++ Convert String to Uppercase in C++ exit() and _Exit() in C and C++ Initializer list in C++ Iterator invalidation in C++ Lower bound in C++ Modulus of Two float numbers or double number Pass by value in C++ Set insert function in C++ Std partition_point in C++ Unary Operator Overloading in C++ Using Default Arguments with Virtual Functions Virtual Functions and Runtime Polymorphism What is endl in C++ What is Unary Operator Overloading in C++ Which operators cannot be overloaded in C++? rint(), rintf(), rintl() in C++ Stack size in C++ String append() function in C++ String push_back() in C++ String replace() in C++ Transform function in C++ Unique in C++ Unordered_map in C++ Binary String to Int C++ Boost C++ ctime() function in C++ Difference Between Overloading and Overriding in C++ Exception handling in constructor and destructor in C++ Explain class template in C++ Fesetround() and Fegetround() in C++ and their application Gets() and Puts() in C++ Hypot(), hypotf() and hypotl() in C++ Kadane Algorithm in C++ Log function in C++ Map of Pairs in STL Map vs unordered_map in C++ Nearbyint() Function in C++ Pair in C++ Access Specifiers in C++ Add Two Numbers in C++ Using Class Benefits of Operator Overloading in C++ C++ Socket Programming Windows C++ Program for Addition of Two Numbers Using Functions C++ Programming Examples C++ Protected Inheritance C++ Return Object Static Data Members in C++ Program for COPY Constructor in C++ Association in C++ C_str in C++ Boost libraries in C++ C++ macro function Assignment Operator Overloading in C++ Automatic Storage Class in C++ Function Object in C++ C++ Move Constructor Cast in C++ C++ 11 Lambda C++ Multithreading Bottom-up Approach in C++ C++ Program to Divide the String Into N equal Parts Gray Code to Binary Code in C++ How to get the value of pi in C++ Multimap value_comp() function in C++ Vector of Vectors in C++ Naïve Bayes Algorithm in C++ f 10 C++ Programming Tricks You Should Know btowc() function in C++ forward_list::cend() in C++ Unordered_multimap max_load_factor() function in C++ Cpp_int in c++ Dynamic Objects in C++ FLOCK() FUNCTION IN C++ Generate Random Double Numbers in C++ How to Assign Infinity to a Number in C++ Jump statements in C++ Multipath inheritance in C++ Out of Range Exception in C++ Size of Class in C++ Size of string in C++ std::binary_negate in c++ Thread_local in C++ Tokenizing a String in C++ Ancestors of a Node in Binary Search Tree C++ program for Double to String Conversion C++ Program to Demonstrate Use of Formatting Flags on Float Output Clamp in C++ K-Dimensional Tree in C++ Mutable Lambda in C++ Power Set in C++ Program to Find Sum of Geometric Progression Std::Back_inserter in C++ Strpbrk() function in C++ Size of int in C++ TYPES OF MANIPULATORS IN C++ Double colon in C++ How to sort vector in C++ How to use Setprecision in C++ How to write a Vector in C++ Insertion in Splay Tree in C++ Merge Sort Algorithm in C++ Printing a Character using ASCII value in C++ Regex in C++ Size of Data Types in C++ Abstract Factory Design Pattern in C++ Sqrtf() function in C++ Static Casting in C++ Using Range in Switch Case in C++ wcstoimax() and wcstoumax() function in C++ What is float in C++ What is the Diamond Problem in C++ Best way to learn C++ ios setstate() function in C++ Nested Namespace in C++ Single Inheritance in C++ std::fixed, std::scientific, std::hexfloat, std::defaultfloat in C++ StringStream in C++ for Decimal to Hexadecimal and back The OFFSETOF() macro in C++ Semaphores in C++ Seekg in C++ stacktrace Header file in C++ 23 std::future in C++ std::unary_negate() in C++ Difference between std::endl and \n in C++ Iswspace Function in C++ Difference between std-next and std::advance in C++ Hiding of all overloaded methods with same name in base class in C++ C++ program to concatenate two strings using operator overloading Difference between array::fill() and array::swap() in C++ Difference between Friend Function and Virtual Function in C++ Semaphores in C++ UDP server- client implementattion in C++ What is long long in C++ CSV file management using C++ fma() function in C++ Toggle bits of a number except first and last bits in C++ Trailing Return Type C++ 11 Binary search implementation in C++ Different Versions of C++ What is Cascading in C++ Background Colour in C++ BOOL DATATYPE IN C++ BIT VECTORS IN C++ Literals in C++ Application of pointer in C++ Index with minimum sum of prefix and suffix sums in an array in C++ Maximum sum Bi-tonic sub-sequence in C++ std::optional in C++ C/C++ program for triangular matchstick number COUT COMMAND IN C++ LANGUAGE Adjacency matrix program in C++ language Exception Objects in C++ Difference between Null String and Empty String in C++ Character data type in c++ Constructors in Inheritance C++ Comma Operator Overloading in C++ Typename in C++ C++ Friend Class C++ Exceptions Difference Between C and C++ Double-linked list program in C++ Color Code in C++ CRC Program in C++ Anti-Clockwise spiral traversal of a binary tree in C++ Advantages of OOP in C++ Cryptarithmetic Puzzle in C++ Angular sweep algorithm in C++ Factorial of Large Numbers in C++ endl Function in C++ vfprintf() method in C++ Check if a given number is Pronic in C++ Difference between Fundamental Data Type and Derived Data Types in C++ Different Ways to initialize an unordered_set in C++ Dinic’s Algorithm in C++ How to read whole ASCII File into C++ using std::string? std::unary_negate() in C++ String::npos function in C++ type_traits::is_null_pointer in C++ C++ code to count the local extrema of given array Demlo number (square of 11....1) in C++ Function Template and Class Template in C++ Getline in C++ GUI Design in C++ Hashing Implementation in C++ HIERARCHICAL INHERITANCE IN C++ Hospital Management System in C++ How to Add Header Files in Dev C++? How to cin string in C++ How to compile a C++ program in Visual Studio code Iscntrl in C++ Memento Pattern in C++ Smarandache-Wellin Sequence in C++ The feclearexcept in C++ HashMap in C++ Alexander Bogomolny's UnOrdered Permutation Algorithm in C++ Convex Polygon in C++ Count Univalue Subtrees in C++ Entringer Number in C++ Friends pairing Problem in C++ Klee's Algorithm (Length of the union of segments of a line) in C++ Spaceship Operator(&|t;==>) in C++ Uniform Initialization in C++ Woodall Number in C++ C++ Program to Solve Knapsack Problem Using Dynamic Programming How do you exit from the infinite loop in Turbo C++? How to create a game using C++ language How to do XOR in C++? How to Find Max Value in Array C++ How to get date in C++ Pointer to a Derived Class in C++ C++ program to show runtime exceptions Convert a Singly LinkedList to XOR LinkedList in C++ Creation of Variable in C++ CRTP (curiously recurring template pattern) in C++ Euler Circuits in Directed Graphs Using C++ Final NBA Match pairing in C++ Find pivot in rotated sorted array in C++ How to make a square in C++ How to reduce fractions in C++ std::lerp in C++ Stella Octangula Numbers in C++ Return Statement in C++ Finding the n-th Fortune Number in C++ How to use StringStream in C++ Minimize Count of Unequal Elements at corresponding Indices between give n arrays in C++ std::midpoint in C++ std::transform inclusive scan in C++ std::span in C++ Types of Errors in C++ C++ program to implement the bin packing algorithm Dereference Operator in C++ How to merge multiple std::sets into a single std::set in C++? Stack Clear C++ Structure and Class in C++ Template Definition in C++ Tree Data Structure in C++ Typename in C++ Program in C++ for Beginners Restoring a Shuffled Queue in C++ Print patterns in C++ Hybrid Inheritance in C++ How to use OpenGL in C++? How to Separate a String in C++ Havel-Hakimi algorithm in C++ Find the size of all connected Non-Empty Cells of a Matrix in C++ Burst Sort Algorithm in C++ Basic istream peak() method in C++ Addition of two matrices in C++ What is std reference wrapper in C++? What is std mbrtoc 32 in C++? What is std istreambuf iterator in C++? What is std declval in C++? std rethrow if nested in C++ std regex search in C++ std ctype byname in C++ std call once in C++ std basic ios copyfmt in C++ std atomic ref in C++ Properties of Friend Function in C++ Sophie Germain Prime number in C++ Centroid Decomposition in C++ How to Get the List of All Running Tasks in C++ Programming Questions on Function Overloading in C++ std codecvt in and std codecvt do in in C++ std is constant evaluated in C++ Std put money in C++ Number of ordered pairs such that Ai Aj = 0 in C++ dlsym() function in C++ Isxdigit() function in C++ Difference between Objective C and C++ Menu Driven Program in C++ Undulating Numbers in C++ How to Access Private Variables in C++? Particle Swarm Optimization in C++ Understanding std::ios_base::iword in C++ std::piecewise_construct _t in C++ Toeplitz Matrix in C++ Two-Way Linear Search Algorithm in C++ C++ Concurrency in action C++ integer size C++ Enum class Compare two lists in C++ Command to run C++ Program in terminal Cascading In C++ Static Member Function in C++ with Example C++ Multiple, Multilevel and Hierarchical inheritance Painting Fence Algorithm in C++ Rearrange Distant Barcodes in C++ What are the rules for using an Underscore in a C++ dentifier? std::quoted in C++ Std::memory_order in C++ Std::fisher_f_distribution in C++ Advantages Oops in C++ floor() and ceil() function in C++ Topological Sort in C++ How to get file size in C++ Class Meaning in C++ DIFFERENCE BETWEEN NEW AND DELETE OPERATOR IN C++ New and Delete In C++ Operators in C++ String data types in C++ begin() in C++ Static Library Linking in C++ Stack Unwinding in C++ Singleton Pattern in C++ Shared_ptr in C++ Random Number between 1 and 10 in C++ Initializer in C++ Error Handling in C++ Define Reference in C++ Create a Class in C++ C++ Move Semantics What is Thread Id to Int in C++? What is a Static Member Function in C++? Using Keyword in C++ C++ IDE Linux C++ Mini Project With Source Code and Output All swing components C++ Syntax Link Call By Value And Call By Reference In C++ Const ptr c++ Const_cast C++ Constant Arguments in C++ Example of parameterized constructor in C++ example of user-defined data type Anonymous object in C++ Bank program in C++ Base class and Derived class in C++ Cerr in C++ Cin string in C++ cin.get() in C++ Containers in C++ Control flow statement in C++ coroutine in C++ cstdlib in C++ Difference between encapsulation and Abstraction Difference between template and macro in C++ Emplace_back in C++ Cstdio in C++ Exception specification in C++ Files and streams in C++ Hamming code implementation in C++ Map cbegin() and cend() function in C++ STL Map Emplace_hint() function in C++ STL Naked function calls in C++ Private destructor in C++ Static object in C++ unordered_set in C++ Uses of namespace std in C++ Virtual function and virtual base class in C++ VS Code Setup for C++ Vtable and vptr in C++ fixed() function in C++ How to remove an element from an array in C++ How to take space-separated input in C++ iomanip in C++ Isdigit() function in C++ noexcept in C++ rdbuf() in c++ seekg() function in C++ Seekp() function in C++ Setw() in C++ The diamond pattern in C++ Advantages and Disadvantages of Inheritance in C++ C++ Variables Types Explain Access Specifiers in C++ Anagram Program in C++ AREA OF TRIANGLE IN C++ ARRAY INPUT IN C++ Big Integers in C++ Bitwise Operator in C++ Data Structures Algorithms and Application in C++ EOF Function in C++ Explicit in C++ File Opening Mode in C++ Friend Function in C++ Function Overriding in C++ How to Copy in Turbo C++? How To Use POW in C++ Increment Operator in C++ Inline Functions in C++ Int range in C++ Integer in C++ Linked List in C++ malloc() and calloc() in C++ Maximum Value in Vector in C++ NPTEL Programming in C++ Assignment Solutions SHARED POINTER IN C++ Vector in C++ Stl What is an Object in C++ What is Copy Constructor in C++ Dereferencing a Pointer in C++ fill() Function in C++ map find() function in C++ Associative Containers In C++ C++ generic programming introduction Character Set in C++ Class and Structure in C++ Decltype in c++ Difference Between Abstraction and Interface in C++ File Stream in C++ Final in C++ Final Keyword in C++ Find substring in C++ Flush in C++ Has-A Relationship in C++ How to allocate memory dynamically in C++ How to close turbo C++ in windows 10 How to Use Modulus in C++ How to use Set in C++ Input and Output Operators in C++ Insert Function in C++ MENU DRIVEN PROGRAM IN C++ MOVE SEMANTICS IN C++ OOPs Interview Questions in C++ PARAMETER PASSING IN C++ PUNCTUATORS IN C++ SPLIT FUNCTION IN C++ Stream Classes in C++ Vector declaration in c++ Vector in C++ Virtual Function in C++ Binary Search Tree Program in C++ Built-in Types in C++ API in C++ Returning Object from a Function in C++ C++ Singleton C++ Template Class Declaration and Definition Tree in C++ C++ Type Traits Catch All Exceptions in C++ Lvalue and Rvalue in C++ Move Constructor in C++ Move Semantics in C++ Mutex Lock in C++ Qt in C++ Tutorial STL Algorithms in C++ Access Class members in C++ Designated initializers in C++ Dynamic Initialization of Objects in C++ Inbuilt Functions in C++ Metaclass in C++ Nesting of a member function in C++ Unique_ptr() in C++ Vector erase() function in C++ Vector insert() Function in C++ 10 important concepts of Oops in C++ At in C++ Difference Between Abstraction and Encapsulation in C++ Difference between Function Overloading and Operator Overloading in C++ Exception Specifications in C++ Examples of Destructor in C++ Examples of Hybrid Inheritance in C++ How to declare an Array in C++ How to declare string in C++ Instance variable in C++ Manipulators in C++ Pointer Declaration in C++ preprocessor in C++ Push_Back() Function in C++ Space in C++ String stl in c++ Edmonds Karp algorithm in C++ How to Create Singleton Class in C++ Static Polymorphism in C++ Associative Containers In C++ C++ generic programming introduction Character Set in C++ Class and Structure in C++ Decltype in c++ Difference Between Abstraction and Interface in C++ File Stream in C++ Final in C++ Final Keyword in C++ Find substring in C++ Flush in C++ Has-A Relationship in C++ How to allocate memory dynamically in C++ How to close turbo C++ in windows 10 How to Use Modulus in C++ How to use Set in C++ Input and Output Operators in C++ Insert Function in C++ MENU DRIVEN PROGRAM IN C++ MOVE SEMANTICS IN C++ OOPs Interview Questions in C++ PARAMETER PASSING IN C++ PUNCTUATORS IN C++ SPLIT FUNCTION IN C++ Stream Classes in C++ Vector declaration in c++ Vector in C++ Virtual Function in C++ Associative Containers In C++ C++ generic programming introduction Character Set in C++ Class and Structure in C++ Decltype in c++ Difference Between Abstraction and Interface in C++ File Stream in C++ Final in C++ Final Keyword in C++ Find substring in C++ Flush in C++ Has-A Relationship in C++ How to allocate memory dynamically in C++ How to close turbo C++ in windows 10 How to Use Modulus in C++ How to use Set in C++ Input and Output Operators in C++ Insert Function in C++ MENU DRIVEN PROGRAM IN C++ MOVE SEMANTICS IN C++ OOPs Interview Questions in C++ PARAMETER PASSING IN C++ PUNCTUATORS IN C++ SPLIT FUNCTION IN C++ Stream Classes in C++ Vector declaration in c++ Virtual Function in C++ Babylonian Square Root Algorithm in C++ C++ Delegates Complex Number Program in C++ Custom Sort in C++ Differences Between C++ and JavaScript Meta Classes in C++ Prim’s Algorithm in C++ RAII in C++ How to access set elements in C++ How to Allocate and Deallocate Memory in C++ How to Convert String to Lowercase in c++ How to initialize a string in C++ How to Input a String in C++ Ignore Function in C++ Image Recognition Algorithm in C++ Insertion Sort Algorithm in C++ Knapsack Problem in C++ LOG BASE 2 IN C++ LOOPING STATEMENT IN C++ Managing Output with Manipulators in C++ Max Heap in C++ mbrlen- function in C-C++ Merge Overlapping Intervals in C++ Merge Sort Recursive in C++ Methods to Sort Strings in C++ Multiline Comment in C++ Multiple catch statements in C++ Naïve Bayes Algorithm in C++ Needleman Wunsch Algorithm in C++ Object delegation in C++ Pass 2 Assembler Program in C++ ratio_less_equal() function in C++ Rethrowing an exception in C++ Return type in C++ Reusability in C++ Round Robin Scheduling Program in C++ Sequence Container in C++ Sieve of Eratosthenes in C++ SOLID PRINCIPLES IN C++ STACK USING PUSH POP PROGRAMME IN C++ Stdlib Header File in C++ Strcmp function in C++ strcmpi in C++ Find minimum s-t cut in a flow network in C++ Hamilton Cycle Detection in C++ list cbеgin() and cеnd() function in C++ Maximum Bipartite Matching in C++ Neural Network in C++ Otsu Thresholding Opencv C++ Pancake Sorting in C++ Pimpl Idiom in C++ Print All Interleavings of Given Two Strings in C++ Print the Corner Elements and their Sum in a 2-D Matrix in C++ reinterpret_cast in C++ Rotate Bits of a Number in C++ Shallow Copy in C++ Stable Marriage Program in C++ Stack Smashing Detected in C++ Static Data Member in C++ String::npos in C++ Thread safe queue in C++ Total Keywords in C++ Tug of War in C++ What Kind of Exceptions are Available in C++ Which Operator is Used to Allocate Memory for an Object Boundary Traversal of Binary Number in C++ Difference between POP and OOP in C++ Fundamentals of Data Structures in C++ C++ Constructor Return Type C++ Libraries C++ STL Tutorial C++ Throw Character String in C++ Clone a Linked List with Next and Random Pointer in C++ Counting Sort in C++ Diffеrеncе Bеtwееn dеquе::cbеgin and dеquе::assign in C++ Difference between Null and Nullptr in C++ Facade Pattern in C++ Semaphore in C++ Accumulate function in C++ Algorithm Header File in C++ Applications of C++ basic_istream::putback() in C++ Benefits of OOPs Boost library in C++ Bubble Sort in C++ C++ Override C++ Struct Public Throw Exception in C++ Call by Rеfеrеncе in C++ Character in C++ Characteristics of friend function in C++ Cin Getline in C++ Collections in C++ Composition in c++ Continue Statement in C++ Developing a Digital Synthesizer in C++ Different C++ Versions Diffеrеncе Bеtwееn Friеnd Function and Virtual Function in C++ Find a triplet from three linked lists with a sum equal to a given number in C++ Fizz Buzz Problem in C++ Forward list in C++ Friend Function and Friend Class in C++ Advantages of Function Overloading in C++ Game Library for C++ HashSet in C++ Heapify Algorithm in C++ Hopcroft Karp algorithm in C++ String find function in C++ Tellg in C++ The lower_bound in C++ The sum of digits in C++ Thinking in C++ language THIS FUNCTION IN C++ Tower of Hanoi Algorithm in C++ Transpose of a Matrix in C++ language Types of Execution in C++ Use of explicit keyword in C++ User-defined header files in C++ Vector of String in C++ Virtual Table in C++ Visibility Mode in C++ What are Literals in C++ What are manipulators in C++ Abstract Data Type in C++ POP full form in C++ 8-puzzle Problem Using Branch and Bound in C++ BK tree in C++ Decorator pattern in C++ Fusion tree in C++ Jump Pointer algorithm in C++ std::remove_extent in C++ Tabu search in C++ Nested structure in C++

C++ STL Tutorial
2024-08-05 10:03:02

C++ STL Tutorial

C++ Standard Template Library, or STL, is a powerful tool and plays a significant role in the C++ programming language. The STL library provides a collection or group of template classes and functions, giving a wide range of frequently used data structures and algorithms. The STL's major purpose is to make life easier and improve C++ programme development by offering generic, reusable, and efficient components.

The STL is based on the foundation of C++ templates, allowing developers to construct type-independent and highly flexible code. It contains many more components, such as vectors, lists, maps, iterators and basic algorithms like sorting and searching. It also has function objects like functors. These whole components are used to function in combination, which also allows the programmers to solve crucial problems, which makes it easier to design low-level data structures and algorithms.

By encouraging code reuse, readability, and maintainability, the STL has transformed C++ development. It has become an essential component of contemporary C++ development, providing a standardized and fast way to communicate with data structures and carry out critical operations. Understanding and utilizing the STL may substantially enhance your productivity and the standard of your code, whether you're an unfamiliar or seasoned C++ coder.

Key Components of C++ STL

The C++ Standard Template Library (STL) contains several key components essential to using this library. To use this library, we need to consider these key components:

1. Algorithm:

    In the STL, the term "algorithm" refers to a group of predefined, reusable functions that carry out standard operations on collections of items frequently contained in containers. These methods give a standardized user interface for processing data and are made to operate with different container types (such as vectors, lists, and arrays). Using STL methods, routine data processing operations are primarily made simpler and more efficient, improving the maintainability and productivity of programs.

    Common STL Algorithms: The STL has an extensive library of algorithms for many various tasks. Here are a few that are often used:

    • Sorting: To organize items, use algorithms like std::sort, std::partial_sort, and std::stable_sort.
    • Searching: Std::find, Std::binary_search, and Std::count algorithms help find components within a container.
    • Transformation: To modify or compute data, algorithms like std::transform and std::for_each apply a defined action to each element in a range.
    • Aggregation: Std::accumulate and other algorithms create aggregated values like the sum or product of components in a range.
    • Set Operations: On sorted containers, algorithms like std::set_union and std::set_intersection carry out set operations, such as determining the union and intersection of sets.

    2. Container:

    The Standard Template Library (STL) in C++ offers a large selection of container classes that let you effectively store, manage, and work with collections of objects. The C++ STL's containers are intended to offer a variety of data structures for varied uses. They are a fundamental component of the C++ language and are vital to simplifying several programming tasks. The C++ STL's primary container types are listed below:

    • Sequence Containerstd::vector: A dynamic array that may increase or contract in size. Vector access is particularly efficient because elements are kept close to one another in memory.
    • std::deque (Double-Ended Queue): A double-ended queue that enables efficient insertion and deletion of entries at both ends. It is carried out via a series of memory chunks.
    • std::list: A doubly-linked list with effective insertion and deletion capabilities at any location. It does not, however, offer constant-time random access.
    • Associated Containers: A container that holds distinct, organized pieces is known as a set. It is implemented as a red-black tree, a self-balancing binary search tree.
    • std::map: Stores key-value pairs with unique and sorted keys. It is often implemented as a red-black tree, just like a set.
    • std::multiset and std::multimap: These functions are similar to set and map, except they may hold duplicate keys.
    • std::unordered_set: A container that keeps distinct elements unordered and uses a hash table for quick access.
    • std::unordered_map: Stores key-value pairs unordered, utilizing a hash table for quick retrieval. Compared to set and map, it is faster for huge collections.
    • std::unordered_multiset and std::unordered_multimap: These functions are similar to unordered_set and unordered_map, except they can hold duplicate keys.
    • std::stack: A container adapter that offers a Last-In-First-Out (LIFO) data structure. Deque or a list are frequently used in their implementation.
    • std::queue: A container adapter that offers a First-In-First-Out (FIFO) data structure. Deque or a list are frequently used in their implementation.
    • std::priority_queue: A container adapter that offers a priority queue data structure in which components are dequeued in descending order of priority. Vector is commonly used in its implementation.
    • std::shared_ptr: A clever pointer that controls shared ownership of things that are allocated dynamically. It keeps track of ownership by reference counting.
    • std::unique_ptr: An intelligent pointer that denotes exclusive control over an item and assures its deletion when no longer required.
    • std::weak_ptr: An intelligent pointer that allows circular references to be destroyed in a shared ownership model.

    3. Functors:

    Functors, often known as "function objects," are an essential concept in the C++ Standard Template Library (STL). Functors provide a method for customized behaviour in algorithms and data structures by allowing you to treat things as functions. Functors are simply examples of classes or structs that carry out the operator() function call. They are used to express specific comparison, transformation, or operation logic in different STL algorithms and containers.

    Some of the key points are:

    • Function Object Definition: Functors are user-defined classes or structures that replace the operator() function, according to the definition of a function object. Instances of the functor class can be invoked like conventional functions, thanks to this operator. Functors are more flexible than ordinary functions because they encapsulate state and behaviour.
    • Custom Behaviour: With the use of functors, programmers may specify unique behaviours for various STL algorithms and containers, including sorting, searching, and transformation. This personalization may be adjusted to meet the needs of a particular application, increasing the flexibility of the code.
    • Algorithm Flexibility: Functors can encapsulate additional states or context, unlike function pointers or simple functions. Algorithms can use context-sensitive information during execution by setting this state at object construction and accessing it when the functor is called.
    • Code Readability: Functors can improve code readability by enclosing the logic necessary for a particular operation within a single class. More self-explanatory code and better maintenance may result from this.
    • Predicates in Algorithms: Algorithms like std::sort, std::find_if, and std::remove_if frequently employ functors as predicates. Various behaviours are possible thanks to these predicates, which specify the circumstances under which items should be performed or filtered away.
    • Adaptability: Functors are capable of adapting to complicated needs. A significant degree of flexibility is provided by the ability to build functors that implement different sorting criteria for sorting algorithms or filter elements based on multiple criteria.
    • Stateful Functors: Functors, unlike conventional functions, may keep a state between calls. When constructing algorithms that call for context-aware judgements, the capacity to retain previous knowledge can be of great use.
    • Standard Library Functors: The C++ STL includes several predefined functors, including std::less, std::greater, and std::function. These common functors streamline routine activities and act as the basis for creating unique functors.
    • Functor Usage Variability: Functors may be used with containers like std::set and std::map in addition to algorithms. For the components kept in these containers, they can provide special comparison functions, enabling different ordering standards.

    4. Iterators:

    In C++ STL algorithms, iterators are essential for traversing and modifying components in containers without compromising the technical details of the underlying data structure. They enable the smooth integration of algorithms with different data structures and offer a standard mechanism to access items across multiple container types. Iterators in C++ STL algorithms have the following essential properties:

    • Traversal Abstraction: Iterators abstract the act of moving through the contents of a container, which is known as traversal. They serve as a standardized interface that enables algorithms to operate on various container types (such as vectors, lists, and maps) without being knowledgeable about the internal structure of any individual container.
    • Iterators Hierarchy: The C++ STL specifies a number of iterator types with various degrees of capability and restrictions. These consist of random access iterators for going to any element in constant time, bidirectional iterators for travelling in both directions, begin() and end() iterators for specifying a range, and more. The characteristics of the container and the needs of the algorithm determine which iterator type should be used.
    • Iterator Validity: In STL algorithms, iterator validity is essential. When container items are changed (for example, by insertion or deletion), iterators may become invalid. Using algorithms carelessly can result in undefined behaviour since they reference invalidated iterators.
    • Iterator Pairs: Most STL algorithms operate on a range specified by two iterators, commonly represented as [begin, end]. The beginning iterator indicates the range's initial element, and the end iterator shows its last element. The element pointed to by the end is not included in the range; only items between the beginning and end remain.
    • Algorithm-Iterator Compatibility: STL algorithms are built to operate with iterators without any issues. You may use several iterators and algorithms like std::for_each, std::find, std::sort, and std::accumulate to carry out a range of activities on container items.
    • Iterator Traits: The <iterator> header offers a template class named std::iterator_traits that enables access to data about the iterator type's properties by algorithms. This makes it possible for algorithms to customize their actions to the capabilities of the iterator.
    • Custom Iterators: By specifying the appropriate iterator methods and attributes, developers may build custom iterators for their data structures. They may employ STL algorithms with user-defined containers, increasing code reuse.
    • Iterator Adapters: The STL offers iterator adapters, such as the std::back_insert_iterator and the std::front_insert_iterator, to let algorithms insert elements into containers (such as vectors or lists) quickly. With the help of these adapters, containers may be encapsulated and made to work with algorithms that demand output iterators.
    • Lambda Expressions: Iterators may now be used in algorithms more efficiently, thanks to lambda expressions in C++11 and subsequent versions. When using algorithms, programmers can provide customized behaviour inline, improving code clarity and obviating the need for additional functor classes.
    • Algorithm Complexity: Analyzing an algorithm's time complexity requires knowledge about the type of iterator utilized. Depending on whether they use forward, bidirectional, or random-access iterators, algorithms have various performance characteristics.

    In summary, iterators are the glue that enables C++ STL algorithms to operate on various container types while preserving a standardized and practical interface. By removing the specifics of data structure traversal, they make it possible to write compelling and reusable code for various applications.

    5. Smart Pointer: 

    Smart pointers, such as std::shared_ptr and std::unique_ptr, were first introduced in C++11 and improve memory management by automating the allocation and deallocation of dynamic memory. They make resource management safer and more dependable by preventing memory leaks.

    6. Allocators:

    Allocators provide containers with a degree of customization in memory management. They optimize certain use cases or platforms by giving developers control over how memory is allocated and deallocated.

    7. Exception Safety:

    Exception safety is a significant consideration in the design of many STL components. This means that even when unexpected issues arise during data processing, they are designed to handle exceptions patiently and guarantee that resources are cleaned up appropriately.

    Example Code of Vector Container:

    #include<iostream>

    #include<vector>

    using namespace std;

    int main() {

       // Create a vector to store integers

    vector<int> integerVector;

    int value;

       // Display the original size of the vector

    cout << "Initial vector size = " << integerVector.size() << endl;

       // Push 5 values into the vector

    for(value = 0; value < 5; value++) {

    integerVector.push_back(value);

       }

       // Display the updated size of the vector

    cout << "Updated vector size = " << integerVector.size() << endl;

       // Access 5 values from the vector using indexing

    for(value = 0; value < 5; value++) {

    cout << "Value at index " << value << " = " << integerVector[value] << endl;

       }

       // Use an iterator to access the values in the vector

    vector<int>::iterator iter = integerVector.begin();

    while (iter != integerVector.end()) {

    cout << "Value using iterator = " << *iter << endl;

    iter++;

       }

    return 0;

    }

    Output:

    C++ STL Tutorial

    Explanation:

    This C++ code demonstrates using vectors, a dynamic data structure like an array from the Standard Template Library (STL). The programme begins by including the required libraries, such as vectors for working with vectors and iostream for input and output operations. An empty integer-capable vector named integerVector is initialized by the main function. Furthermore, a defined integer variable called value is used to populate the vector and retrieve its elements.

    The code illustrates how the size and content of the vector may be changed. The size() method is used at first to demonstrate how big the vector is and that it is currently empty. The vector is then filled with numbers from 0 to 4 using the push_back() function, which dynamically expands the vector to make room for the additional members. The program then prints the vector's adjusted size.

    The code used iterators and indexing to access the vector's items. The first method uses an index-based loop to cycle through the vector and output the associated values. In the second method, iterators are used, and a vector-specific iterator is built to iterate across the vector and show each member.

    Advantages of C++ STL Library

    • Reusability: The reusability nature makes the algorithms and data structures ready-to-use, such as vectors, lists, queues and maps. Using this component, the developers can save time and effort without having to write or build from scratch.
    • Standardization: As part of the C++ Standard Library, the C++ STL is a standardized library. It makes code more portable and minimizes compatibility difficulties by ensuring consistency across many C++ implementations and platforms.
    • Efficiency: STL components frequently have excellent performance optimization. The algorithms often employ low-level optimizations and are created to be effective. Additionally, data structures with O(1) random access and effective memory management include vectors and sets.
    • Standard Containers: The ability to dynamically resize STL containers, such as vectors and maps, enables them to adjust to changing data needs. They are excellent for a variety of applications due to their versatility.
    • Algorithm Consistency: STL algorithms work inside the bounds of iterators' ranges, maintaining a constant user interface for various data structures. This consistency facilitates code reuse by making it simple to apply the same algorithm to different containers.
    • Productivity: Using high-level methods and data structures from the STL makes coding more accessible. Development may go faster and with fewer defects if developers focus on fixing particular issues rather than minor details.
    • Flexibility: The STL enables customization and offers a wide range of standard data structures and algorithms. To customize the behaviour of STL components to meet their requirements, developers can design their data structures, function objects, and iterators.

    Conclusion

    The C++ Standard Template Library (STL), which has significant advantages like reusable, practical and ready-to-use algorithms and data structures, is an essential tool for C++ developers. It increases productivity by minimizing low-level coding work because of components that are performance and safety-optimized.

    The adaptability of STL allows for customization while preserving a constant interface for different containers. Its durability and community support guarantee dependability and offer an extensive range of resources. The C++ STL improves code reuse, effectiveness, safety, and maintainability, making it a vital tool for C++ programmers to speed up development and encourage high-quality code.